Part 1. Erythrocytes and Leukocytes.
(I can sketch and label the cells by hand, but I think for the sake of better viewing, I will be using copies of the slides from this website: http://www.bu.edu/histology/m/t_periph.htm )
These are "stained" blood cells, done for the better viewing.
The numerous "donut" looking cells are erythrocytes, or as commonly known - the red blood cells.
The labeled slide illustrates the different cells and identifies them.
We know of five types of the leukocytes, the white blood cells. They are separated into two major categories: granular leukocytes (granulocytes) and agranular leukocytes (agranulocytes). The difference between the two is that stained agranulocytes do not show their granules (vesicles) and granulocytes do.
The three types of granulocytes are:
Basophils- release the histamine to attract blood plasma to the injured area.
Eosinophils- defend the body against parasites, such as worms. The eosinophils bombard the "enemy" with digestive enzymes. They also release special chemicals that moderate the severity of the allergic reactions.
Neutrophils- attacks large bacteria and some fungi. They are the first ones to combat infections.
The two types of agranulocytes are:
Lymphocytes- classified into two types, B and T. Their names are based on the area where they mature, B cells in a bone marrow and T cells in the thymus gland. The B cells are parents to the plasma cells that produce antibodies which defend us against microorganisms and other foreign invaders. The T cells target and destroy specific threats such a bacteria, viruses, and cancer cells.
Monocytes- work against viruses and certain bacterial parasites. They differentiate into the macrophages that "eat up" the invaders and cellular debris.
Let's look at some of them.
These are monocytes, they are quite larger than a red blood cells and have a pretty big nucleus, with the rest of its area occupied by cytoplasm. (Notice that there are no visible organelles, this is agranulocyte).
As you can see here, the nucleus takes more that half of the monocyte's body.
And these are eosinophils
( the one on the right side, the one on the left side is a neutrophil).
Also much bigger than a red blood cells. You can see the two lobes of a nucleus and the organelles - granulocyte.
Part 2. Lymphatic System.
One of the lymphatic organs are the tonsils.
We can see the formation of lymphatic follicles, the crypt of a tonsil, and the overall shape and size of it.
The lymphatic system is physiologically and anatomically relate to the cardiovascular system.
The Lymphatic system helps maintain the value of the blood. It transports the fats and fat-soluble vitamins, absorbed by the digestive system, to the cardiovascular system. Lymphatic vessels, which resemble the veins, have the walls which contain the one-way valves, and they acquire same help from the skeletal muscles, allowing the constrictions and pressure changes. Beginning at the lymphatic capillaries, merging to form the lymphatic vessels, which further merge into larger and larger vessels eventually creating two major ducts: right and thoracic. These ducts join the subclavian veins near the shoulders, thereby returning the lymph to the cardiovascular system. As you can see in the drawing bellow, the two systems closely follow the same pattern and exchange their contents continuously. One helps the other with their individual functions and keep each other at a best performing levels.
Part 3. Nonspecific Body Defenses.
The integumentary system, in other words - our skin, provides the first line of defense. The outer layer, the epidermis, continuously being replaced. As the dead cells fall off, so does the bacteria that desired to "enter". Plus, our sweat glands produce natural antibiotic called dermcidin, that can kill a range of harmful bacteria.
2. Explain the protective role of cilia. From what primary tissue type do cilia arise?
Cilia, the epithelial tissue that have a hair-like projections that beat constantly in a wave-like motion to sweep mucus upward into our throat, from where we get rid of it by coughing or swallowing it.
3. Define and sketch the process of phagocytosis.
(I apologize for my artistic inability. This is why I use pictures and other methods to illustrate the topic)
4. Name and sketch two cell types that perform phagocytosis.
Phagocyte and Lysosomes perform the phagocytosis. (The neutrophils and macrophage cells perform this process also.)
5. Describe the process involved in the inflammatory response. Include all chemicals and cell types.
The injured tissue release the chemicals that "call" in the mast cells that release histamine (basophils also release the histamine) Histamine promotes dilation of the blood vessels which allows the entry of additional proteins and removal of the damaged and destroyed cells. Complement proteins "mark" the bacteria for phagocyte's easy detection.
6. Explain and sketch the mechanism by which complement kills bacteria.
Complement proteins create the holes on the bacterial cell's walls. Excess diffusion of salt and water swell it up and eventually it bursts.
Part 4. Specific Body Defenses.
A unique set of proteins on the cell's surface of an individual's immune system recognize the "marked" cells and do not attack them. These "self"-markers are known as Major Histocompatibility Complex (MHC) proteins.
2. Describe and sketch the basic structure of an antibody. How many different types of antibodies do you have in your body?
We have 5 identified types of antibodies. Antibody consists of four peptide chains linked together to form a Y shape. Only the receiving ends of each antibody differentiates them. Each one is designed to receive the specific antigen.
3. Describe and sketch clonal expansion.
When antigen fragment is found by the inactive T cell, The T cell activates and undergoes mitosis, then it quickly begins to produce clones of identical T cells.
4. How does interferon operate?
Cells that become infected by viruses secrete a group of proteins called interferons. Interferons then diffuse themselves to the nearby healthy cells, binds their cell membrains together and stimulates the healthy cells to produce proteins that interfere with a synthesis of the viral proteins. This makes harder for the viruses to infect the protected cells.
5. What is the difference between cell mediated and antibody mediated immune response?
Antibody-mediated immune response: The B cells produce the proteins that binds and neutralizes certain antigens. Then it releases them into the lymph, blood stream, and tissue fluid, where they circulate through the body until the need for their action. They protect against viruses and bacteria that are soluble in blood and lymph.
Cell-mediated immune response: The T cells are dependent on the actions of the other T cells. T cells directly attack the intruder cells and help coordinate other aspects of the immune response. They protect against parasites, bacteria, viruses, fungi, cancerous cells, and cells perceived as foreign.
6. Name the cells involved in the cell-mediated immune response.
T cells
7. Name the cells involved in the antibody mediate immune response.
B cells
8. Explain the difference between passive immunization and active immunization and give an example of each.
An active immunization is when the vaccine prevents an infectious disease by activating the body’s production of antibodies that can fight off invading bacteria or viruses.
If there is enough time, the active vaccination is preferable. Keep in mind that passive immunizations provide only short-term protection that often lasts just a few weeks before the antibodies are worn down and removed from the bloodstream. By contrast, active immunizations can produce antibodies that last a lifetime.
Passive immunization, in which antibodies against a particular infectious agent are given directly to the child or adult, is sometimes appropriate. These antibodies are taken from a donor and then processed so the final preparation contains high antibody concentrations. At that point, they are given in the vein or by a shot to the patient.
Passive immunization is often used in children and adults who have weakened immune systems or may not be good candidates for routine vaccinations for other reasons. It can be used with people who haven’t been vaccinated against a disease to which they’ve been exposed. For example, the passive rabies immunization (rabies immune globulin) is commonly used after a certain type of wild animal bites a child. Passive immunizations for hepatitis A (gamma globulin) may be helpful for people traveling to a part of the world where hepatitis A is common. They are typically given before children or adults leave on their trip. These are used less now that there is a vaccine for hepatitis A.
Works cited:
"Medical Histology -- Peripheral Blood Cells." Medical Histology -- Peripheral Blood Cells. Web. 14 Oct. 2015. <http://www.bu.edu/histology/m/t_periph.htm>.
Web. 16 Oct. 2015. <http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/Biological Diversity/BioBookANIMORGSYS.html>.
Web. 17 Oct. 2015. <https://clinicalscienceblogyaseen.files.wordpress.com/2013/04/fig-3- inflammatory-response2.jpg>.
Wikipedia. Wikimedia Foundation. Web. 17 Oct. 2015. <https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Antibody>.
Passive immunization is often used in children and adults who have weakened immune systems or may not be good candidates for routine vaccinations for other reasons. It can be used with people who haven’t been vaccinated against a disease to which they’ve been exposed. For example, the passive rabies immunization (rabies immune globulin) is commonly used after a certain type of wild animal bites a child. Passive immunizations for hepatitis A (gamma globulin) may be helpful for people traveling to a part of the world where hepatitis A is common. They are typically given before children or adults leave on their trip. These are used less now that there is a vaccine for hepatitis A.
Works cited:
"Medical Histology -- Peripheral Blood Cells." Medical Histology -- Peripheral Blood Cells. Web. 14 Oct. 2015. <http://www.bu.edu/histology/m/t_periph.htm>.
Web. 16 Oct. 2015. <http://www.bioon.com/book/biology/Biological Diversity/BioBookANIMORGSYS.html>.
"Immunizations: Active vs. Passive." HealthyChildren.org. Web. 18 Oct. 2015. <https://www.healthychildren.org/English/safety-prevention/immunizations/Pages/Immunizations Active-vs-Passive.aspx>.
Muy interesante y útil para la comprensión de los fenómenos inmunológicos.Gracias.
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